숭례문 / 남대문 단청 - Sungnyemun / Namdaemun dancheong

숭례문 Sungnyemun or alternatively called 남대문 Namdaemun is a one of the most important and popular Korean historical monuments. It is a fortified gate which was a part of Seoul medieval fortifications. This building was not built only for military purposes. It had also representative function. All foreign emissary missions were greeted at 숭례문 therefore it was a place where the foreigners were to encounter the splendour of Korean capital. The question raises itself: what architectural features made 숭례문 so special? It were: body of the building with its dimensions and of course dancheong.

The brief history of 숭례문

The construction of the gate started in 1396. The reason, it was decided to build it with the ring of fortifications, had its roots in the political situation of the period. In 1392 general 이성계 (I Seong Gye) overthrew Goryeo dynasty. He changed the name of the country to Joseon, proclaimed himself as a king (in history he is known by his regnal name Taejo), declared the new dynasty (이 - I dynasty) and moved the capital from 개성 (Gaeseong, Kaesŏng) to 한성 (Hanseong - it is an old name of Seoul). The latter event had its place in 1394. One year later king Taejo established 도성축조도감 (都城築造都監) - an office responsible for building the fortifications around the capital. The person responsible for 숭례문 counstruction was court's official 최유경 (Choe Yu Gyeong). On 1st January 1396 after special ceremony the king ordered the start of works upon the fortress. The ring of the fortified wall with 4 main and 4 minor gates was completed in 1398. 숭례문 became one of the 사대문 (Sadaemun) - Four Great Gates and it received its name. The plaque with the caligraphy of its name writen by hanja characters 崇禮門 was designed by famous caligrapher of that time 양녕대군 (Grand Prince Yangnyeong, the grandson of king Taejo). The characters were written vertically what makes 숭례문 distinctive among the other gates. The reason it was done like that are principles of 풍수 (Pungsu - Korean name of feng shui). King Taejo was afraid of fire that will burn the 경복궁 (Gyeongbokgung Palace), so it was ordered to secure the capital according to 풍수 regulations. It was believed that writting the name of 숭례문 vertically would ward off the threat of fire. The name 숭례문 means "Honoring Propriety Door" but in many sources it is known by its slang name 남대문 Namdaemun (南大門) what literally means South Great Gate. The second name of the building was also used in Joseon times what is confirmed in written sources, for example in Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.

숭례문 underwent a general reconstructions in years: 1433, 1447-1448, 1478-1479 and its present shape comes from those refurbishing works. It received stone base with wooden upper part which was covered with two-tired tiled roof. The gate was an integral part of city fortifications until 1907. That year Japanese decided to demolish the fortified wall near 숭례문. The reason was the Japanese prince's visitation who refused to go through the gate. Soon after this authorities built roads and tramway lines nearby. The terrain of the gate was fenced-off and the access was limited for people. In the 1933 the 조선보물고적명승천연기념물보존령 (Joseon Treasures, Historic Sites and Natural Monuments Conservation Decree) was issued and in the document the 숭례문 was given a rank as Korean Treasure No. 1. During the Korean War (1950-1953) the building had been damaged but soon after it underwent emergency renovation. The general building restoration had it place in years 1961-1963. On the 20th December 1962 the Cultural Protection Act was enacted by the 국가재건최고회의 (Supreme Council for National Reconstruction) and 숭례문 was redesignated as 대한민국의 국보 제1호 (National Treasure of Korea No. 1).

10th November 1994 the gate was selected as main Seoul landmark and symbol of the city. In 2003 the fortified wall, which had been demolished by Japanese in 1907, was reconstructed. 10 meter long sections of the stone fortifications were rebuilt from both sides of the gate. Thanks to that 숭례문 gained the same look as in the time when it was integrated in the Seoul's fortication system. Two years later the plaza around the gate was reconstructed and in 2006 access to the building for the people was restored. 

In 2008 the fire caused by arson damged the wooden structure of the 숭례문. On 29th April 2013 the renovation of the historical monument was completed. During the building restoration process the authorities decided to amend 숭례문's features which were not done in the last general renovation (1961-1963). The caligraphy of the hanja characters in the plaque with the gate's name was rewritten accordingly to the copy which was held in 지덕사 (Jideogsa) temple. Two hanja characters: 崇 and 禮 received original forms like they were previously designed by 양녕대군. Moreover the new wooden structure of the 숭례문 received roof in historical shape. There were also made changes in the stone part of the gate. The fortified stone wall was extended 16 meters to the east and 53 meters to the west. The dimensions of the wall were changed to those which were confirmed by archeological research. In effect they were enlarged and the gate with its surroundings became a recontructed part of Seoul medieval fortress. As a result of all undertaken works, the 숭례문 received more historically appropriate look. On 1st May 2013 the administrative duties upon the gate was given to 대한민국 문화재청 (Cultural Heritage Administration), before that it had been under the 중구청 (Administration of the Jung District). On 4th May 2013 the 숭례문 was officially opened to public again.

숭례문 단청 - Sungnyemun dancheong

The style of the 숭례문's dancheong changed over the time. As it was built at the beginning of 이 (Yi) dynasty it was embelished in all three Joseon dancheong styles, i.e. early, middle and late Joseon dancheong. In the early Joseon period the 숭례문 was decorated by simplified pattern dancheongs with predominance of green and blue colours. This type of dancheong was created according to the rules of Confucianism which recommended the way of simplicity in all branches of art. Historical records kept the name of one of the dancheongjangs from that time who decorated the 숭례문. It was painter 김여문 who kept the rank of 부사맹 (busamaeng). He painted the dancheongs in 1479 during the general renovation of the gate ordered by the king 성종 (Seongjong). The middle Joseon period brought the wave of changes. It was caused by the import of the new red pigment from China which gained popularity really fast and changed the decorating style of the buildings. The dancheong, like it had been in the Goryeo times, became colorful again. In the late Joseon colour explicit character of the style was preserved but patterns evolved into really complicated forms. The 숭례문 was kept in this kind of embelishment long after the fall of the Joseon dynasty, i.e. till the 1963.

Last general renovation of the gate undertaken by the Joseon dynasty took place in 1868-1869. In 1890, for the last time, 숭례문's dancheongs were painted only by the paints made of natural pigments. From that time on, natural dyes gradually were falling into disuse. Their production ceased completelly in 80's of the 20th century. 

At the end of 19th century chemical pigments had started to appear in the market and 20-30 years later they were widely used in the Korean Peninsula. They were cheaper, more resistant and their hues stronger than their natural equivalents. All 5 of the 숭례문's dancheong renovations done in 20th century were made using this type of paints.

The first dancheong renovation in the 20th century took place in 1954 and it was carried out during the emergency restoration. As mentioned above the Korean War inflicted serious damages to the gate. 김보현 (Kim Bo-Hyeon) the abbot of 경국사 (Gyeongguksa Monastery) responsible for renovating works kept the late Joseon style of the dancheong but he decided to change the shapes of the patterns. There was also added innovation in the design. Using the gold leafing technics the dancheong was enriched by the gold colour in some of its parts. 

In the 1963 the dancheong was brought back to its original shape. According to the testimony of 한석성 (Han Seok-Seong) one of the renovators who took part in restoring duties in that time, it was decided to peel off the paints from 1954 to reach the earlier layer of the natural dyes from Joseon period. And by that means all the patterns were copied.

Seven years later the 숭례문's dancheong underwent minor renovation because green and blue colours faded. The same situation happened in 1973 but this time dancheong's colours changed becuase of pollution. The renovating works lasted only for one month while such restoring processes normally take 3-4 months. Again no changes in the pattern were done except the gold leafing that was reintroduced.

The last renovation in 20th century took place in 1988 before the Seoul Olympics. This time the design was changed. The authorities decided to simplify the pattern to make it historically more accurate. The gate lost highly elaborated style of the dancheong which in fact was more appropriate for temple buildings than for fortress architecture. As the 숭례문 was an example of military construction it was decided to make its embelishments more secular in character. As a result, the style of the dancheong shifted from geum dancheong to moro dancheong but it still remained late Joseon in character. It is worth mentioning that during 1988 renovation the dancheongjangs painted dragon on the ceiling inside the gate. It was innovation because there were not any known historical evidence about such painting in 숭례문.

The very last renovation of 숭례문's dancheong happened in 2012-2013, it was done during the final stage of rebuilding works after arson attack that happened on 10th February 2008. It was decided to make all renewal works in traditional way, so the same happened in case of dancheong. The responsibility for this lied in hands of 홍창원 (Hong Chang-Won) - dancheongjang, historian, artist and holder of rank Intangible Cultural Property No. 48. For the first time since the end of Joseon dynasty 숭례문 was to be painted only by natural dyes. The early Joseon style of the dancheong was chosen for the design of paintings. All the works were preceded by the research process. The head of the dancheongjang team carefully studied historical sources and visited other historical monuments in Korea to compare their patterns. The study's conlcusions gathered in 1963 after peeling off the dancheong layers were also taken into consideration. In effect the gate gained totally new look. The colourful late Joseon dancheong was replaced by the ascetic in character early Joseon one. The green and blue predominated among all colours in the paintings. From the two main aims that were to be achieved during the dancheong restoration, one was reached completely - it was design from 14th  and 15th centuries, and the other one partially- it was case of natural dyes. It appeared that natural paints used during restoration process were not resistant to weather conditions therefore it was decided to mix them with chemical glue. It strengthened them however did not solve a problem entirely. Nowadays Korean research centers still seek solution. The aim is to obtain or, I should say, regain recipe for traditional natural paint that is resistant to weather conditions.

출처, 서지 / Sources, bibliography:

태조실록 - 10권, 태조 5년 9월 24일 기묘 2번째기사 1396년 명 홍무(洪武) 29년

세종실록 - 61권, 세종 15년 7월 21일 壬申 2번째기사 1433년 명 선덕(宣德) 8년

세종실록 - 117권, 세종 29년 8월 30일 己丑 2번째기사 1447년 명 정통(正統) 12년

성종실록 - 90권, 성종 9년 3월 20일 임오 2번째기사 1478년 명 성화(成化) 14년

성종실록 - 94권, 성종 9년 7월 19일 무인 2번째기사 1478년 명 성화(成化) 14년

서울 숭례문(─崇禮門) - term described in online 한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture), owned by 한국학중앙연구원 (The Academy of Korean Studies)

국보 제 1호 서울 숭례문 - article on website of the 두클래스, owend by 동아출판

국보 제1호. 서울 숭례문 (서울 崇禮門) - term described on the website of the 문화재청

숭례문이 말하지 않았던 비밀, “고종 때 이런 일이…” - article on the website of 동아사이언스

10년전 화마 겪은 숭례문…복구 마지막 과제는 '단청' - article on website of the 주식회사 연합뉴스, written by 박상현 기자

숭례문 화재 10년…"단청 박락 외에는 큰 이상 없어" - article on website of the 주식회사 연합뉴스, written by 박상현 기자

광화문·서울역·숭례문이 돌아온다 - article on the website of 시정일보, written by 백인숙 기자

숭례문, 100년만의 실험… 단청에 천연안료 칠한다 조선일보 - article on website of the 조선일보, written by 허윤희 기자

보물 1호라는 흥인지문(興仁之門) - article on the website of 한겨레:온, written by 허창무 주주통신원

숭례문 과연 진짜 부실복원일까? - article on website of the 뉴스로, written by 혜문스님

숭례문 단청문제, 왜 일본산 재료를 썼나?? - article on website of the 문화재청, written by 황준호

숭례문(남대문) 단청, '일본산' 아교·안료 사용 논란 - article on the website of 인스티즈, written by 이해진 기자

‘국보1호 원형’ 훼손 부재 재활용에 달렸다 - article on website of the 경향신문, written by 이기환 선임기자

숭례문 복구에 부실 화학안료 쓴 단청장 2심도 실형 - article on website of the 주식회사 연합뉴스, written by 임미나 기자

숭례문 복원에 숨겨진 과학 - article on the website of 사이언스타임즈, written by 이성규 객원편집위원

‘숭례문 현판’ 원래의 모습대로 수리 후 제자리에 걸기로 ! - 지덕사(양녕대군 사당)의 숭례문현판 탁본자료, 진본으로 밝혀져 - article on the website of 문화재청, written by 이정연, 김순관 of the 건축문화재과

일제강점기 문화재 법제 연구 - 「조선보물고적명승천연기념물보존령(1933년)」 제정·시행 관련 - A Study of the Cultural Legislation of Historic Properties during the Japanese Colonial Period - Related to the Establishment and Implementation of the Chosun Treasure Historic Natural Monument Preservation Decree (1933) - article written by 김종수 from the 한국전통문화대학교 전통문화교육원 교육기획과 (Department of Education Plan, Korean National University, Education Institute of Traditional Culture), in: 문화재 (Munhwajae) Korean Journal of Cultural Heritage Studies, Volume 53 Issue 2, Pages.156-179, 2020

금박 올렸다 지웠다… 19세기말 이후 5차례 보수. 숭례문 단청 변천사 - article on website of the 세계일보, written by 김채연 기자

숭례문 단청, 부실 결과…일본산 접착제 때문? - article on website of the 프레스맨, written by 고아라 기자

복구된 지 7년, 숭례문 다시 찾아가 보니… - article on the website of 서울특별시, written by 시민기자 염승화

엉터리 복원 숭례문 단청, 재시공할 전통아교 찾았다 - article on website of the KBS 뉴스, written by 유동엽 기자

조선시대 단청장의 활동과 전승 - article on the website of 문화콘텐츠닷컴 (한국콘텐츠진흥원), written by 만봉스님

崇禮門 (숭례문) - article on website of the 경남매일, written by 송종복 문학박사

감사원이 밝힌 숭례문 복원 공사의 실상(종합) - article on the website of 주식회사 연합뉴스, written by 장예진 기자

사진으로 보는 숭례문 (崇禮門) 600년의 역사  - 그림, 사진 / 인터넷 여행 - article from the 네이버 블로그 (Naver Blog) called "jajuwayo님의 블로그", written by jajuwayo

숭례문 깊이 읽기: 한국의 왜곡된 문화재 순혈주의 - article on the website of the ㅍㅍㅅㅅ(프프스스), written by 필자 Shon

숭례문 복원: 문제는 저질 재료도, 장인의 실력 부족도 아니다 - article on the website of the ㅍㅍㅅㅅ(프프스스), written by 필자 Shon

숭례문 복원, 문화선진국 일본과 이탈리아에서 배울 점 - article on the website of the ㅍㅍㅅㅅ(프프스스), written by 필자 Shon

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

오색 빛의 권위와 위엄, 단청 - the YTN 사이언스 documentary about dancheong

Today I would like to recommend a really valuable documentary about dancheongs. All of you who are interested in Korean art and aesthetics will find this material really interesting. I am sure about it.

오색 빛의 권위와 위엄, 단청 recorded by YTN 사이언스 is 43 minute movie which shows the dancheong in many aspects. There is a brief history with annotation to the sources of historical value: 삼국사기, 삼국유사, 고려사, 세종실록, 이수신편, 승정원일기, 광해군일기 and 인정전건영도감의궤. There are discussed main types of dancheongs with their most noted examples in: 경복궁 - Gyeongbokgung, 창덕궁 - Changdeokgung, 통영 세병관 - Tongyeong Sebyeonggwan, 법주사 - Beobjusa, 강서 수산리 고분 벽화 - frescoes from the tombs of Goguryeo Kingdom and other historical monuments. Additionally the authors included the comparison between Korean dancheong, Chinese danqing and Japanese dansei.

The dancheong creating process is presented by both: 

- artists: 

양종창 단청 장인

- academical specialists: 

곽동해 박사 of the 한신대학교 문화콘텐츠 연구소

정종미 교수 of the 고려대학교 디자인조형학부

윤용현 연구관 of the 국립중앙과학관

도진영 교수 of the 경주대학교 문화재보존학과

안병찬 교수 of the 경주대학교 문화재보존학과

- museologists: 

이동은 학예사 of the 혜명단청박물관

- novices:

김정숙 단청 수강생

변정자 단청 수강생

김원진 고려대 일반대원 조형문화예술

이정민 고려대 일반대원 조형문화예술

There are shown all stages of making the dancheong including: gathering the ingredients for making the paints, paints production, dyes composition, preparing the patterns and finally painting.

Here is the link to the documentary: 오색 빛의 권위와 위엄, 단청 / YTN 사이언스

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

Four meoricho project completed

Finally I have completed four meoricho project. I was working on them quite a long time. Many things happened in my life during that period, good and bad but at last I managed to finish the dancheong paintings.

The meorichoes (머리초) were painted by temperas on pine wood boards. I used brushes which sizes were 2; 1 and 3/0 for detailed art work. After all I used varnish to secure the paintings. Now you can see the effects.

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

모로단청 - Moro Dancheong

Today, I would like to show my other project that I started some time ago. I decided to paint the whole beam in Moro Dancheong style. The dimensions of the wooden board are 97 x 20 cm. I used temperas and brushes with sizes: 4, 2 and 1.

This work includes following patterns: saeksil (색실), hwi (휘) and expanded meoricho motifs (머리초) with three lotuses per each. The Geutgi Dancheong (긋기단청) - painted green background with two black-white lines along the beam's egde was placed in the middle between meorichoes (머리초). The whole work was painted according to the Joseon dancheong (조선시대의 단청) type.

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

My current project - 4 meorichos

Just a short review of my four new dancheongs that I am currently painting. As you can see these all are meoricho patterns with the lotus motif. The photos took by night show their present stage and those taken in the day light demonstrate ealrier phase.

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

Meoricho - 머리초

This work has already been presented and descibed on this blog in the post The beginnings, but it was shown among others. Now I would like to present it in details in two different types of backgroung (white one and wooden).

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

The Green Dragon

Today I would like to show you another dancheong work that I created. It is not going to be an ornamental motif. It will be a picture with the dragon in dancheong style.

At first I would like to tell you some interesting fact about the dragons in Korean art. Almost all dragons which appear in dancheong paintings and other branches of K-art, are blue and yellow beings. It is caused by the fact that Korea borrowed chinese Five Elements Theory (오행, 五行) in which blue dragon is a guardian of the East and yellow one is a ruler of the Center. The pictures which feature those two dragons fighting each other for the fire pearl, are really common in Korea. But what about other dragons? Are there any other colour variants of the dragons in Korean art? Yes, there are. The pictures featuring them are not so common as the examples mentioned above, but there are some. I think that good example of such pictures are dancheong paintings of Seokjongsa Temple (석종사) in Cheongju (청주시, 淸州市). One of them presenting green dragon inspired me to paint the image I am presenting now in this post. You can see green dragons of Seokjongsa in Korean Kanhwa Son Buddhism - Special Report on Onmark Productions website.

It's time to say something about the picture itself. The dragon was painted by temperas on the wooden board with dimensions 55 x 50 cm. I used brush sizes: 4, 2, 1. The Green Dragon was created as a mix of inspirations. It was not only Seokjongsa's green dragon, but also picture of the fighting dragons (yellow one versus blue one) presented on Exhibition of Dancheong Paintings Created by Intangible Cultural Properties No.48. As for the clouds and the dragon's background I was inspired by decorations of Gyeongbokgung Palace (경복궁, 景福宮) and common dancheong motifs of the temple drums. This work was created two years ago.

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:

Bulguksa (불국사 / 佛國寺) and Anapji (안압지 / 雁鴨池)

Today morning I found really nice article about Bulguk Temple (불국사 / 佛國寺) and reconstructed pavilion of Silla Kingdom by the Anapji Pond (안압지 / 雁鴨池). The second structure has already been mentioned on this blog in the first post (Dancheong) in the part treating of dancheongs from the Three Kingdoms of Korea period.

Bulguksa was founded in 528 by the Beopheung the king of Silla (법흥왕) and it was a gift for his mother Yongjie. In that time the temple was called Pomnyu. The name was changed to Bulguksa after second reconstruction which had place in 751 (the first reconstruction and expansion was made in 574). Previously it had been small temple but after expansions it was changed into huge monastery which consisted of 200 wooden buildings. Despite the fact it was built in Three Kingdoms of Korea period there are no dancheongs preserved from that time. There aren't even from Goryeo period. Why is that? The answer is obvious - Imjin wars. Bulguksa was burnt to the ground by Japanese invaders in the end of 16th century. In the years 1604-1805 it was renovated 40 times! During those long lasting works it received the layout kept in the style of Choseon dancheong. Unfortunatelly it was ruined again. In 1969 the president Park Chung Hee (박정희) ordered  major restoration of the Bulguksa. The conducted works brought back the structure in the shape of monastery from Choseon period. Nowadays we can admire the results of these efforts.

I highly recommend to see the post - Gyeongju (경주), czyli początek koreańskiej przygody (in English: Gyeongju (경주) - the Beginning of Korean Adventure) which is enriched in very valuable photo material. The text of the article is in Polish but I think Google Translate will make it understandable. You can also surf the blog and see other interesting articles. Its name is "W krainie tajfunów" which means "In the Land of the Typhoons" because the blog mainly deals with Korean, Chinese and Japanese subjects.

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

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Dancheongs outside Korea - part I: Muryangsa (무량사)

As I mentioned in the first post on this blog, dancheong embellishments are peculiar only to Korea. It is truth because Koreans developed this style in their own unique way. They keep this painting tradition and 99,99% of dancheongs are in Korea. What about remaining 0,01%? These are exceptions to this rule. This post is the first of series of short articles which I plan to dedicate to the subject of dancheong examples outside Korea. Today I would like to present the Muryangsa Temple on the island Oahu in the US state of Hawaii.

Muryangsa was built in 1980 in Palolo Valley and it was the second Korean temple on Oahu. The first one was built in 1975 in Honolulu and was called Daewonsa (대원사). Unfortunatelly it was destroyed by fire. After that local Korean Buddhist comumunity decided to build another temple but in the different location. The sources mention three different dates of the first laying foundations: 1979, 1980 and 1986. I am not sure which one is correct.  Anyway the construction of Muryangsa was completed in 2005. It is the largest Korean temple outside of the Korean  Peninsula. Muryangsa is monastic, educational and cultural center. The temple is also famous because of its dancheongs. I tried to figure out who painted them but without luck. Instead of this I found information about the dancheongjang responsible for decoration of the previous Korean temple in Hawaii (Daewonsa). It was Hong Jeom-seok (홍점석 ) - Living National Treasures of Korea. In my opinion Muryangsa's dancheongs were also painted by some master with the skills similar to Hong Jeom-seok's artistry. I think like that because the quality of embellishments in Hawaiian temple is really high. My today's recomadations are two photo galleries which show the remarkable beauty of the Muryangsa's adornments.

Korean Temple - Palolo Valley, Hawaii by Daniel Peralta

Mu Ryang Sa Buddhist Temple by David Chatsuthiphan

If you want to know more about dancheong style, please click here --> Dancheong

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Articles about dancheongjangs

While surfing the internet I found a few really nice articles about famous dancheongjangs (masters in dancheong paintings) that I wanted to share with you. They present the 20th and 21st centuries' dancheong masters. Some of them include short intervies. Unfortunatelly not all of them are in English. I tested Korean texts by Google Translator and I found that the main idea is translated understandable. The details may appear fallible. Basic knowledge in Korean really helps in reading electronically converted texts of this language. I recommend these articles because I want to popularize the knowledge not only about the decorating style itsef but also about its history and main figures - masters who keep the tradition. Information about thier lifes shows how difficult way they had to cross to gain the artistry of dancheongjang. Moreover it is good to listen to the masters. Those articles present their guidance and valuable hints.

Articles about venerable Man-Bong (만봉 - 萬奉, 이치호 - 李致虎, 1910-2006) - I think he was the most influential dancheongjang of the 20th century. He was a holder of Intangible Cultural Property No. 48 title. Man-Bong raised next generations of dancheongjang. Some of his pupils are also honoured  by the title of Intangible Cultural Property. His works and teachings were and still are inspiration for adepts of dancheong art. In my opinion he could be called the Master of the Masters.
만봉스님의 생애와 전승활동 on 문화콘텐츠닷컴
만봉스님은 어떻게 그림을 그리게 되었나 by Lee Sang-gi (이상기) on OhmyNews (오마이뉴스)

Article about Hong Chang-won - Intangible Cultural Property No. 48 and Man-Bong's pupil:
숭례문 복원 중요무형 문화재 홍창원 단청장 by 김문이 on 서울신문

Article about Lee In-sup - Man-Bong's son:

A colorful way to honor kings and deities by Chun Su-jin from Korea Joongang Daily

Article about Song In-jeong - Intangible Cultural Property No. 48 and Man-Bong's pupil:

Song In-jeong by Yang In-sil from "Water, Nature and People" Vol. 30 - Summer 2012

Articles about Hong Jeom-seok - Intangible Cultural Property No. 48:

한국의 장인 - 단청장 홍점석 on 한민족정보마당

홍점석 단청장 (중요무형문화재 제48호) by 남동우 from 금강신문

Article about Jung Sung-gil - Incheon Intangible Cultural Asset no. 14:

Traditional dancheongjang artisan decorates a temple by Kim Min-young from 인천광역시

Articles about Yang Yong-ho:

옛 건축의 장엄한 마무리, 단청의 조율사 월천(月泉) 양용호 on 월간민화

40년 가까이 단청장의 길을 걸어온 월천(月泉) 양용호 씨[단청장] by 운영자 from 서울 무형문화재

Article about Kim Joon-Woong:

단청장 김준웅의 40년 예술혼 보존할 길 터주세요 by 강태우, 이숙종, 채원상 from 중앙일보

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Beopjusa (법주사) in Arirang World

I have just watched very short movie "The Great Beauty of N. Chungcheong Part. 2" on Facebook account of the Arirang World TV. From 0:25 to 1:12 there is presented Beopju Temple (Beopjusa, 법주사, 法住寺). The type of all dancheongs showed in the movie comes from Joseon period, but yet the history of the temple is much older.

It was founded in 553 by Uisin (의신, 義信) - Buddhist monk from Silla, who also gave the name to the temple. Beopju means "the Residence of Dharma". The golden age of the Beopjusa was in Goryeo period when about 3000 monks resided there. With the fall of Buddhism as a state religion during Joseon period its role diminished. In the time of Japanese invasions it was burnt to the ground. However shortly after (at the beginning of 17th century) it was rebuilt and that is why nowadays Beopjusa's painting layout is based on the Joseon dancheong type. Presently it is one of the most important temples of Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism and significant historical monument. It owns national and miscellaneous treasures and items of tangible cultural heritage of Chungcheongbukdo. Among them the most famous is Palsangjeon (팔상전, 捌相殿, Hall of Eight Pictures) - National Treasure No. 55. It is the oldest wooden pagoda in Korea which preserved its original appearance. Like other buildings in Beopjusa it is reconstuction of the previous - burnt one. The building which we can admire now was completed in 1626. Of course it is worth to study its dancheong patterns as it is also famous because of them. In the movie the Palsangjeon is presented really briefly at 0:37. Anyway, enjoy beautiful scenery of Beopjusa!

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The beginnings

I decided that the first post about my works should have presented my beginnings in dancheong style. The photo pasted above shows my three earliest works. The fourth one (the first from the left side) is a little bit later painting..

All four pictures were painted by temperas on pine wood boards. As their dimensions are small I had to use brush sizes: 2, 1, 3/0 and 4/0. They present meoricho (머리초) patterns' details. Traditionally meorichos are always placed in the beam-ends.

The first work from the right is my very first dancheong. It shows common Buddhist pattern - lotus blossom. To be honest, I am not proud of it today but I do not want to hide it. It is just my history and it is the beginning of my evolution in dancheong painting.

The second painting from the right side was inspired by patterns in Gyeongbokgung Palace (경복궁, 景福宮).

The third one from the right presents another floral motif. What is special about this work? It is my first dancheong which reached Korea. Now it belongs to Mr Choi from the city of Hwaesong (화성). I must admit it's honour for me that my painting appeared in homeland of the dancheong style.

And the last one (the first from the left side) shows lotus pattern inspired by dancheongs from Anyangsa Temple (안양사, 安養寺).

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Dancheong

Introduction

Dancheong is Korean traditional painting style which for centuries has been used for decorating purposes. Its patterns embellish buildings, furniture and musical instruments. The most noticeable feature of dancheongs is their colourfulness despite the fact they are based only on five colours. Dancheong is unique and peculiar only to Korea and it is distinguishable from Chinese (danqing) and Japanese (dansei) decorating styles.

The term and its ethymology

The name "dancheong" is a Korean reading way of Chinese characters 丹靑 (it is so called Sino-Korean reading) which literally mean "cinnabar/vermillion-blue-green". According to the type of written source this word can appear in different forms. In historical records and modern scientific works it is written by means of Chinese characters (丹靑). It appears in Korean native alphabet called hangeul in majority of present Korean sources (not only scientific!) and this form looks like this 단청. The latin transcription of this word is characteristic of Western references. It may appear in two ways: “tanch'ŏng” in McCune–Reischauer romanization and “dancheong” in Revised Romanization (this type of transcription will be preferable on this blog). Other names of this painting style are: danbyeok, dannok, jinchae, dangchae, ochae, hwachae and danchil.

History

Dancheong is term of Chinese origin and it refers to its Chinese archetype. The word 丹靑 (in Chinese danqing) was attested for the first time in the Chinese chronicle from Western Han dynasty period (206 BC - 9 AD) and it described adornments on the buildings. We do not know how exactly danqing looked like in Han dynasty period since there are no buildings left from that time except some remains of brick and rammed earth walls, rammed earth platforms, and funerary stone pillar gates. The only evidence which sheds some light on the subject are glazed pottery house models. These minature clay replicas are dated back to Eastern Han dynasty period (25 - 220 AD) and many of them have well preserved embellishments on their surfaces. Their patterns mainly consisted of geometrical and floral motifs. It is the only source thanks to which we can imagine and assume how ancient Chinese danqings may have looked like.
Chinese archetype of dancheong came to Korean Peninsula along Buddhism in the period of Three Kingdoms of Korea. In the 4th-6th century Buddhism became a state religion in all three Korean kingdoms (Goguryeo - 372 AD, Baekje - 384 AD, Silla - 527 AD). The spread of a new religion entailed changes in society, politics, economy and culture (introduction of Chinese writing system for example).

The danqing style came to Korea with Chinese Buddhist monks but it was not preserved in the original form. Under local folk influences it gradually changed and was developped in its own unique way which was distinct to Chinese decorating styles. Unfortunately there is no evidence how exactly this process proceeded and all our present knowledge is basically derived from preserved examples from later ages - Goryeo period (The reconstruction of the style developement is based only on design of archeological artifacts from this period). The comparison of Chinese danqing from Song dynasty period (960-1279) and Korean dancheong from Goryeo period (918–1392) indicates far resemblance of forms and patterns but it differs much in selection of hues. As an interesting fact I will add that Korean source mentioned the word dancheong for the first time in 1145. It appeared in Samguk Sagi (삼국사기) historical record which covers the period of Three Kingdoms of Korea. The chronicle mentions this word while describing the renovation of Hwangnyongsa Temple (황룡사).

It is worth to mention that some researchers state that the dancheong appeared in Korea before the introduction of Buddhism. It may have happened during Chinese occupation of northern part of Korean peninsula somewhere between 108 BC and 313 AD. No wooden structures survived from that period but tombs of kings of Goguryeo did and their sepulchral murals too. Their style is similar to wall paintings of Dunhuang Caves in China. The researchers who made a comparison of murals from mentioned locations showed that 90 examples of graphic motifs found in tombs of Goguryeo were likely conveyed from caves which were dated back to the 4th century. Korean scholars consider sepulchral paintings of Goguryeo as a source and beginning of Korean painting art including dancheong style.

As I mentioned above the oldest preserved dancheongs come from Goryeo period. Their examples are: Josadang (조사당) of Buseoksa Temple (부석사) in Yeongju, Geukrakjeon (극락전) of Bongjeongsa Temple (봉정사) in Andong, Sungin Hall (숭인전) in Chongno-dong (종로동) and Daeungjeon (대웅전) of Sudeoksa Temple (수덕사) in Yesan. As one can notice these examples apply to sacral architecture but the painted decorations were not peculiar only to this type of buildings. During Goryeo period dancheongs were prevalent. Xu Jing, the author of Chinese 12th century source called "Illustrated Account of Goryeo (Goryeo Do-Kyung, 고려도경, 高麗圖經)" described luxurious painted adornments of Korean palaces. He emphasized that the vivid colours of embellishements had made the palaces distinctive among other structures he had known. Another historical account but this time from the period of Mongol invasion (13th century) says that dancheongs were present not only on surfaces of royal palaces' walls but even on houses of regular citizens.

In the Joseon period (1392 - 1897) the situation changed. The Yi dynasty government prohibited its subjects from decorating their houses in dancheong style. This regulation applied to the people of all social classes excluding the royal family. It meant that dancheongs were reserved only for governmental buildings which included: royal palaces, offices, garrisons and fortifications, garden pavilions and Confucian schools. As an exception government allowed Buddhist temples to keep their dancheong decorations. It was one of very few acts of a goodwill of Joseon kings for Buddhism. When the House of Yi gained the throne of Korea, the members of this clan decided to lean the power on Neoconfucian ideology. Buddhism was rejected. The official reason of the denial was its contribution in weakening of the state. In fact Buddhism had been supported by previous dynasty and its position on the political scene was still strong. Confucian ideology which was opposed to it, became natural ally to new rulers who seeked ways to change the old order within Korean state. In short time the government formulated anti-Buddhist law. The restrictions included limits on number of clergy and land area. The authorities prohibited monks and nuns from entering the cities. Additionally Buddhist funerals and begging were outlawed. These activities caused decrease of number of monasteries from a several hundred to 36. Many historical works state that during persecutions Korean Buddhism moved to mountains where it found safe place for its existence and self-development. This historical fact explains why there are so many beautiful dancheong decorated temples in mountain areas of Korea. The restrictive law eased a little only after Japanese invasions (1592, 1598) during which Buddhist monks formed in guerilla units were fighting against invaders.

Despite the fact Joseon dynasty period had some turbulent events (peasant rebelions, two Japanese invasions, raids of nomad tribes from Manchuria, Later Jin dynasty and Qing dynasty invasions) there survived many beautiful examples of dancheongs of that time. It is difficult to mention all objects which include them but the most famous are:  Geunjeongjeon Hall (근정전), Gyeonghoeru Pavilion (경회루), Myeongjeongjeon (명정전), Injeongjeon Hall (인정전), Namdaemun (남대문) also known as Sungnyemun (숭례문),  Palsangjeon Hall (팔상전) of Beopjusa Temple (법주사), Guksajeon Hall (국사전) of Songgwangsa Temple (송광사), Mireukjeon Hall (미륵전) of Geumsansa Temple (금산사), Gakhwangjeon Hall (각황전) of Hwaeomsa Temple (화엄사), Daeungjeon Hall (대웅전) of Tongdosa Temple (통도사), Jinnamgwan Hall (진남관), Sebyeonggwan (세병관), Geuglagjeon Hall (극락전) of Hwaamsa Temple (화암사), Daeungjeon Hall (대웅전) of Bongjeongsa Temple (봉정사), Taedongmun (대동문), Ryongwang Pavilion (련광정), Sungryong Hall (숭령전) and so on.
The dancheong evolved in Joseon period. In comparison to previous epoch the patterns became more complicated. New motives and strong color contrast were added. The most noticeable innovation were pictures (byeoljihwa) which presented Buddhist themes and mythical creatures like dragons, snake-turtles, tigers, kirins and others. These images were interwoven in dancheong ornamentation. Another act of development of this decorating style was colour shifting. In the times of Goryeo the main place had yellow colour which was used to cover most of the buildings' surfaces (walls and spaces between the beams with dancheong patterns). In the Joseon age yellow was replaced by green. It is worth noting that yellow wasn't rejected totally. It was still used as a detail of patterns and sometimes as a colour of walls.

The history of dancheong did not come to an end with the fall of the Joseon period. In the end of 19th and first half of 20th century Korean culture had to face the westernization (during the time of Korean Empire 1897-1910) and japanization (1910-1945) processes. Especially the second one was dramatic. Japanese government tried to replace Korean language and customs by its own and make Koreans subjects to the emperor of Japan. The written Korean language was banned in education and publications. Moreover, Koreans were forced to change their surnames to Japanese. Many cultural artifacts were stolen and moved to Japan. Gyeongbokgung Palace (경복궁) - the royal estate of Joseon dynasty (famous also because of its dancheongs) was demolished and replaced by Japanese governmental buildings. Japanese terror was strong but it wasn’t strong enough to defeat Korean culture. Many Korean artists were educated in that time. As the whole nation was kept under Japanese surveillance the best place for dancheong teaching (in the undercover way) were Buddhist temples and monasteries. That is why almost all dancheong artists in the post Second World War era were hired from Buddhist clergy.

To sum up this brief history of dancheong I can risk to say that it is an example of living art. The generations of Korean artists have been creating the dancheong embellishments for about 2000 years and its tradition was never disrupted. In the second half of the 20th century this style flourished again and up till now it has had its renaissance. The style still evolves. New generations move it to the different branches of art (digital art, tattoo art, modern applied arts, abstract art - Park Il-sun's [박일선] paintings) and one of good examples of this process are works of the Korean fashion designer Lie Sang Bong (이상봉). Since the turn of 20th and 21st century K-art has become really popular in the world. The dancheong as a part of this phenomenon also has begun to be a source of attraction and inspiration for foreigners.

Functions

The main functions of dancheong:

-    Protective – it preserves the wood from wind and moisture. As some pigments are toxic it protects wooden constructions from vermin either.

-    Representative – it reflects the rank and dignity of the building

-    Religious – the colorful decorations were believed to guard structure from evil. As for the temples and monasteries the dancheong creates the atmosphere conducive to prayer, meditation and other worship services.

-    Esthetic – it covers up the crudeness of materials and embellishes all visible surfaces of the structure

Artists

Dancheong artists and artisans are called dancheongjang (단청장, 丹靑匠). Less popular names of this occupation are: hwasa, hwawon, hwagong, gachiljang, dochaejang. Buddhist monks who paint dancheongs are named hwaseung, geumeo and dancheongjang eojang. These last two names are reserved only for mastered monks. It is worth drawing attention to the fact that nowadays some dancheongjangs are Holders of Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea (요무형문화재). In other words people who hold this rank are Living National Treasures of Korea.
Famous dancheongjangs of the 20th and 21st century are:
-    venerable Man-Bong - 만봉스님 (Lee Man Bong -이만봉, Lee Chi-ho -이치호, Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    venerable Ilsop (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    venerable Wolju (Won Deok-mun, Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    Jung Sung-gil (Incheon Intangible Cultural Asset No. 14)
-    Song In-jeong (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    venerable Hyeogak (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    venerable Kim Ye-woon
-    venerable Lee Yong-woon
-    Lee In-sup (Lee Chi-ho’s son)
-    Hong Chang-won - 홍창원 (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    Hong Jeom-seok (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    Yu Byeong-sun (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
-    Yang Yong-ho - 양용호
-    Kim Joon-Woong - 김준웅

An apprentice becomes a dancheongjang after training under the supervision of master. The training lasts about 8 years (not always) and it consists of pattern design practice and renovating duties.

Types, styles, symbolic meaning

Types

The most common type of dancheong which we can admire in Korea now is Joseon dancheong (조선시대의 단청). This type represents 99% of all dancheongs. Goryeo dancheong (고려시대의 단청) remained only on a few historical buildings from that epoch (they were mentioned in the "history" section of this post). As for Silla dancheong (신라시대의 단청), Baekje dancheong (백제시대의 단청) and Goguryeo dancheong (고구려시대의 단청) there exist some reconstructed buildings which are embellished in recreated paintings from Three Kingdoms of Korea period. The most famous examples of replicas of this kind are Sabi Palace (사비성) and Neungsa Temple (능사) in Baekje Cultural Land (백제문화단지) in the city of Gyuam-myeon, reconstructed Sillian pavilion by the Anapji Pond in Gyeongju National Park (경주국립공원) and renovated Nammun (남문) in Taesong Fortress (대성산성) of the Goguryeo Kingdom. I have to add that I haven't heard anything about decorative types of paitings from the rest of Korean historical states, I mean such types like: Gaya dancheong (가야시대의 단청), Buyeo dancheong (부여시대의 단청) and Balhae dancheong (발해시대의 단청).

Colours

As it was stated in the introduction to this post the dancheong is traditionally based on five colours. It is very simplified definition because in fact there are more of them when we add their shades and mixtures. The five basic colours have their own symbolic meaning which comes from ancient chinese Five Elements Theory (오행, 五行). It is interesting because it can be observed how complicated historical processes had influence on this painting style. As we already know the dancheongs were created in Buddhist, Confucian and aboriginal Korean enviroments, while Five Elements Theory comes from Taoism.

According to the donctrine mentioned above every basic colour represents: cardinal direction, mythical creature, season and element.

Blue symbolizes: east, blue dragon, spring and element of wood.
Red symbolizes: south, vermilion bird (something like phoenix), summer and element of fire.
White symbolizes: west, tiger, fall and element of gold.
Black symbolizes: north, hyeonmu (turtle-snake), winter, element of water.
Yellow symbolizes: center, yellow dragon, periods between the seasons, element of earth.

Patterns

The dancheong consists of following patterns:

-    Meoricho (머리초) - flower motif placed only on the beam-ends. Most of the time it is lotus pattern (seldom there are other flowers). Depending on the style of dancheong there could be simple and elaborate meoricho. Very complex designs in fact consist of two or more meorichos in the one beam-end.

-    Saeksil (색실) - group of lines or one wide band with pattern (dots on dark background, flowers, geometric shapes) between the end of the beam and meoricho. The meoricho does not touches the edge of the beam, saeksil does.

-    Hwi (휘) - traditionally called feather pattern. It looks like waves or interlocking bands. Hwi is always placed between meoricho and the center of the beam.

-    Bidanmuni (비단무늬) - interlaced geometric shapes (with sixfold symmetry). Very elegant and elaborate pattern used in spaces between meorichos but it may also appear autonomously. In that case the whole beams are covered by bidanmuni without any meoricho, hwi and saeksil patterns employed. Other name of this pattern is geummun (금문, 錦紋).

-    Dandongmuni (단동무늬) - single flower, plant, animal or geometric pattern painted in the middle of the beam (between meorichos).

-    Byeoljihwa (별지화) - in fact it is not a pattern but naturalistic painting which is always placed in the center of the beam (between meorichos). In some cases it acts as storytelling picture.  It may contain various themes: landscapes, mythical and auspicious animals (dragon, tiger, crane, snake-turtle, etc), images of Buddha and bodhisattvas, scenes from the sutras. In the most of cases flower and plant pictures show Four Gentlemen (Four Noble Ones, 사군자): plum, orchid, bamboo and chrysanthemum which symbolize Confucian gunja (군자, 君子, junzi) or different seasons (respectively: winter, spring, summer and autumn).

-    Buricho (부리초) - floral pattern of the rounded ends of the rafter. There are a lot of various buricho designs but the most popular is six petal lotus flower.
 
-    Banjacho (반자초) - pattern painted on ceilings. It consists of squares with various designs inside them. There can be found: circle designs, flowers, hanja characters (for example: 壽 - longevity, 福 - luck), swastika symbols (만자문) and mythical creatures.

Styles

The dancheong styles:

-    Gachil Dancheong (가칠단청) - the simplest style and probably the oldest. Its main feature is one colour painted plainly on the beam. It does not have any patterns. It employs green, red, white and yellow. This style serves also as base-coat for more detailed styles.

-    Geutgi Dancheong (긋기단청) - "geutgi" means "single stroke". This style is gachil with black and white (most of the time) straight lines drawn along the border of the beam.

-    Moro Dancheong (모로단청) / Moru Dancheong (모루단청) - "moro" means "end patterns". It is geutgi with meoricho patterns in the ends of the beams, rafters and pillars.

-    Geummoro Dancheong (금모로단청) - this style is moro but with dandongmuni pattern or byeoljihwa painting in the middle of the beam (between meoricho patterns).

-    Geum Dancheong (금단청) - "geum" means gold or elegant. It is the most beautiful and elaborate style of all dancheongs. Its meoricho patterns are expanded the most. The whole surface of the wood is covered by complex set of motifs. There are no plain one colour surfaces. This style employs dandongmuni placed in the middle of the beams.


Bibliography:

The Adaptation of Sangrokhadan Technique on the Color Painting of Wooden Buildings in Goryeo Dynasty - Lee Eun-Hee - in. Journal of Architectural History Vol. 25, No. 5 - 2016

알기 쉬운 한국 건축 용어 사전 - 김왕직 - 동녘 - 파주시 (Paju) - 2007

Buddhism and culture – periodical published by Korea Buddhism Promotion Foundation – Seoul – 2009-present

佛甲寺大雄殿 (불갑사 대웅전): 단청 모사 - 이수예 - 사찰 문화재 보존 연구소 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2014

붓끝 에 담은 華藏 莊嚴 의 서원 – 김성규 – 서울시 (Seoul) – 1955

Conservation of Papers and Textiles – ed. 국립문화재연구소 (National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage) – Seoul – 2011

The Discovery of Korea : history, nature, cultural heritages, art, tradition, cities - Myŏng-jong Yu, T’ae-gyun Kwŏn – Seoul – 2005

Formative Analysis on Danchong Pattern of Korean Wooden Building (Master’s Thesis) – Hyeyong Lin – Kyunghee University – Seoul -  2001

Geometric Constructions of Korean Danchong Patterns and Building Platonic Solids – Kyongil Yoon, Hyunkyung Ki, Reza Sarhangi – in: Proceedings of Bridges 2014: Mathematics, Music, Art, Architecture, Culture - 2014

Guide to Korean Culture: Korea's cultural heritage – ed. 해외문화홍보원 (Korean Culture and Information Service) – 서울시 (Seoul) – 1995

한지유의 사찰 문화재 기행 - 한지유 - 여래 - 용인시 (Yongin) - 2008

한국 전통 사찰 소장 문화재. 경산 환성사 대웅전 단청 - 양희제 - 인문사 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2013

한국 사찰의 단청 문양을 응용한 니트웨어 디자인 연구 : 인티샤 기법을 중심으로 – 이지은 (Knitwear Design inspired by Dancheong Motifs Using the Intarsia Technique); 김혜연 – in: Journal of Korean Society of Design Science, v22 n6 - 2009 

한국 민족 문화 대백과 사전, Vol. 6 - 한국 정신 문화 연구원 ; 공급처 웅진 출판 주식 회사 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 1991

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한국 단청 의 원류 : 발생 에서 고려 시대 까지 – 곽동해 – 서울시 (Seoul) - 2011

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한국의 단청 - 곽동해 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2003

화려한 색채 예술 단청: 기초 입문 – 정세훈 – 서울시 (Seoul) – 2006

The Iconography of Korean Buddhist Painting - Henrik Hjort Sorensen - E. J. Brill - Leiden, New York - 1989

Iconography of religions. Section 12, East and Central Asia, Fasc. 9, The iconography of Korean Buddhist painting - Theodorus Petrus van Baaren, Henrik Hjort Sørensen - E. J. Brill - Leiden - 1989 

역사로 여는 과학문화유산 답사기. 2, 전통 마을 편 - 이종호 - 북카라반 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2014
 
Korean Temple Motifs: Beautiful Symbols of the Buddhist Faith - Heo Gyun, Timothy V. Atkinson - Gyeonggi-do - 2005

Mineral Compositions of Korean Dancheong Pigment Products using Quantitative XRD - Dong Hyeok Moon, Min Su Han, Hye Young Jeong, In Hee Go, Hyen Goo Cho - in: Journal of Conservation Science Vol.32, No.3 - 2016

밀양 영남루 단청의 창의적 조형요소에 관한 연구 (A Study on the Creative Pattern Elements of Dancheong in Yeongnamnu Pavilion, Miryang) - 구미주, 곽동해, 이호열 - in: 건축역사연구(한국건축역사학회지) , Vol. 25 No. 6 - 2016

문양 으로 읽어 보는 우리 나라 단청 – 임영주 – 서울시 (Seoul) - 2007

남북 의 단청 : 남북 단청 문화 교류 자료집 – ed. 대한 불교 조계종 민족 공동체 추진 본부 – 서울시 (Seoul) - 2004

얼과 문화 - 우리문화연구원 Vol. 121-132 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 1999
 
Pictorial Korea - ed. 해외문화홍보원 (Korean Culture and Information Service) – 서울시 (Seoul) – 2004

Raman mapping study of the pigments in the dancheong of Korean traditional buildings - Jeong-Eun Ji, Kiok Han, Jiyeon Nam, Seung Kim, Dai-Ill Kang, Min-Jung Park, Han-Hyoung Lee, In-Sang Yang - in: Journal of the Korean Physical Society Vol. 70, Issue 8 - 2017

Research Service Reports of Dancheong Records of Important Wooden Cultural Heritage-Youngju Buseoksa Josadang - Korea Cultural Administration - Daejon - 2013

A Study on the Origin and Change of Moro-Dancheong - Lee Eun Hee - in: Journal of Architectural History Vol. 27 No. 1 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2018

A Study of Danchung for Cultural Product Development (단청을 응용한 문화상품디자인 개발 연구) - Kim Weol-Kye - in: Journal of Korean Traditional Costume Vol.11 No.2 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2008

Study on the Peculiarity of Danchong Pattern Classified by Using of Building in Age of Choson. (Master’s  Thesis) – Insook Kim – Kyungil University – Gyeongsan – 2007

Study on the Porcelain Pieces through Reinterpretation of Dancheong Patterns (Master’s Thesis) – Hyunjoo Oh – Busan National University – Busan – 2011

단청 – 임영주 – 서울시 (Seoul)  -1991

단청 도감  - 김한옥 – 서울시 (Seoul) - 2007

단청장: 중요무형문화재제48호 - 곽동해, 한경희 – 서울시 (Seoul) – 2001

단청과 불화에 전용된 전통안료의 문헌사적 연구 - 곽동해 - 서울시 (Seoul) - 2014

우리가 정말 알아야할 우리 단청 - 한석성, 박해진 – 서울시 (Seoul) – 2004

Useful links:


Buddhist Art of Korea - Dancheong (불교미술 단청)
Couleurs de Corée
Dancheong -- a discussion of aesthetic principals but no actual definition of the word 'dancheong'
단청 Dancheong a Korean Ornamental Pattern
Dancheong - kolorowe zdobienia budynków
Dancheong (Korean art of painting buildings) – colors coexist to create magnificent splendor 
사찰 장식, 그 빛나는 상징의 세계 - 단청 - 불전을 장식하는 화려한 색채와 그림
단청문양
Temple Colours – Dancheong 
A Traditional Spiritual Colors of Korea -Dancheong
What’s the purpose of applying Dancheong on Korean traditional architecture? 



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