Introduction
Dancheong is Korean traditional painting style which for centuries has been used for decorating purposes. Its patterns embellish buildings, furniture and musical instruments. The most noticeable feature of dancheongs is their colourfulness despite the fact they are based only on five colours. Dancheong is unique and peculiar only to Korea and it is distinguishable from Chinese (danqing) and Japanese (dansei) decorating styles.
The term and its ethymology
The name "dancheong" is a Korean reading way of Chinese characters 丹靑 (it is so called Sino-Korean reading) which literally mean "cinnabar/vermillion-blue-green". According to the type of written source this word can appear in different forms. In historical records and modern scientific works it is written by means of Chinese characters (丹靑). It appears in Korean native alphabet called hangeul in majority of present Korean sources (not only scientific!) and this form looks like this 단청. The latin transcription of this word is characteristic of Western references. It may appear in two ways: “tanch'ŏng” in McCune–Reischauer romanization and “dancheong” in Revised Romanization (this type of transcription will be preferable on this blog). Other names of this painting style are: danbyeok, dannok, jinchae, dangchae, ochae, hwachae and danchil.
History
Dancheong is term of Chinese origin and it refers to its Chinese archetype. The word 丹靑 (in Chinese danqing) was attested for the first time in the Chinese chronicle from Western Han dynasty period (206 BC - 9 AD) and it described adornments on the buildings. We do not know how exactly danqing looked like in Han dynasty period since there are no buildings left from that time except some remains of brick and rammed earth walls, rammed earth platforms, and funerary stone pillar gates. The only evidence which sheds some light on the subject are glazed pottery house models. These minature clay replicas are dated back to Eastern Han dynasty period (25 - 220 AD) and many of them have well preserved embellishments on their surfaces. Their patterns mainly consisted of geometrical and floral motifs. It is the only source thanks to which we can imagine and assume how ancient Chinese danqings may have looked like.
Chinese archetype of dancheong came to Korean Peninsula along Buddhism in the period of Three Kingdoms of Korea. In the 4th-6th century Buddhism became a state religion in all three Korean kingdoms (Goguryeo - 372 AD, Baekje - 384 AD, Silla - 527 AD). The spread of a new religion entailed changes in society, politics, economy and culture (introduction of Chinese writing system for example).
The danqing style came to Korea with Chinese Buddhist monks but it was not preserved in the original form. Under local folk influences it gradually changed and was developped in its own unique way which was distinct to Chinese decorating styles. Unfortunately there is no evidence how exactly this process proceeded and all our present knowledge is basically derived from preserved examples from later ages - Goryeo period (The reconstruction of the style developement is based only on design of archeological artifacts from this period). The comparison of Chinese danqing from Song dynasty period (960-1279) and Korean dancheong from Goryeo period (918–1392) indicates far resemblance of forms and patterns but it differs much in selection of hues. As an interesting fact I will add that Korean source mentioned the word dancheong for the first time in 1145. It appeared in Samguk Sagi (삼국사기) historical record which covers the period of Three Kingdoms of Korea. The chronicle mentions this word while describing the renovation of Hwangnyongsa Temple (황룡사).
It is worth to mention that some researchers state that the dancheong appeared in Korea before the introduction of Buddhism. It may have happened during Chinese occupation of northern part of Korean peninsula somewhere between 108 BC and 313 AD. No wooden structures survived from that period but tombs of kings of Goguryeo did and their sepulchral murals too. Their style is similar to wall paintings of Dunhuang Caves in China. The researchers who made a comparison of murals from mentioned locations showed that 90 examples of graphic motifs found in tombs of Goguryeo were likely conveyed from caves which were dated back to the 4th century. Korean scholars consider sepulchral paintings of Goguryeo as a source and beginning of Korean painting art including dancheong style.
As I mentioned above the oldest preserved dancheongs come from Goryeo period. Their examples are: Josadang (조사당) of Buseoksa Temple (부석사) in Yeongju, Geukrakjeon (극락전) of Bongjeongsa Temple (봉정사) in Andong, Sungin Hall (숭인전) in Chongno-dong (종로동) and Daeungjeon (대웅전) of Sudeoksa Temple (수덕사) in Yesan. As one can notice these examples apply to sacral architecture but the painted decorations were not peculiar only to this type of buildings. During Goryeo period dancheongs were prevalent. Xu Jing, the author of Chinese 12th century source called "Illustrated Account of Goryeo (Goryeo Do-Kyung, 고려도경, 高麗圖經)" described luxurious painted adornments of Korean palaces. He emphasized that the vivid colours of embellishements had made the palaces distinctive among other structures he had known. Another historical account but this time from the period of Mongol invasion (13th century) says that dancheongs were present not only on surfaces of royal palaces' walls but even on houses of regular citizens.
In the Joseon period (1392 - 1897) the situation changed. The Yi dynasty government prohibited its subjects from decorating their houses in dancheong style. This regulation applied to the people of all social classes excluding the royal family. It meant that dancheongs were reserved only for governmental buildings which included: royal palaces, offices, garrisons and fortifications, garden pavilions and Confucian schools. As an exception government allowed Buddhist temples to keep their dancheong decorations. It was one of very few acts of a goodwill of Joseon kings for Buddhism. When the House of Yi gained the throne of Korea, the members of this clan decided to lean the power on Neoconfucian ideology. Buddhism was rejected. The official reason of the denial was its contribution in weakening of the state. In fact Buddhism had been supported by previous dynasty and its position on the political scene was still strong. Confucian ideology which was opposed to it, became natural ally to new rulers who seeked ways to change the old order within Korean state. In short time the government formulated anti-Buddhist law. The restrictions included limits on number of clergy and land area. The authorities prohibited monks and nuns from entering the cities. Additionally Buddhist funerals and begging were outlawed. These activities caused decrease of number of monasteries from a several hundred to 36. Many historical works state that during persecutions Korean Buddhism moved to mountains where it found safe place for its existence and self-development. This historical fact explains why there are so many beautiful dancheong decorated temples in mountain areas of Korea. The restrictive law eased a little only after Japanese invasions (1592, 1598) during which Buddhist monks formed in guerilla units were fighting against invaders.
Despite the fact Joseon dynasty period had some turbulent events (peasant rebelions, two Japanese invasions, raids of nomad tribes from Manchuria, Later Jin dynasty and Qing dynasty invasions) there survived many beautiful examples of dancheongs of that time. It is difficult to mention all objects which include them but the most famous are: Geunjeongjeon Hall (근정전), Gyeonghoeru Pavilion (경회루), Myeongjeongjeon (명정전), Injeongjeon Hall (인정전), Namdaemun (남대문) also known as Sungnyemun (숭례문), Palsangjeon Hall (팔상전) of Beopjusa Temple (법주사), Guksajeon Hall (국사전) of Songgwangsa Temple (송광사), Mireukjeon Hall (미륵전) of Geumsansa Temple (금산사), Gakhwangjeon Hall (각황전) of Hwaeomsa Temple (화엄사), Daeungjeon Hall (대웅전) of Tongdosa Temple (통도사), Jinnamgwan Hall (진남관), Sebyeonggwan (세병관), Geuglagjeon Hall (극락전) of Hwaamsa Temple (화암사), Daeungjeon Hall (대웅전) of Bongjeongsa Temple (봉정사), Taedongmun (대동문), Ryongwang Pavilion (련광정), Sungryong Hall (숭령전) and so on.
The dancheong evolved in Joseon period. In comparison to previous epoch the patterns became more complicated. New motives and strong color contrast were added. The most noticeable innovation were pictures (byeoljihwa) which presented Buddhist themes and mythical creatures like dragons, snake-turtles, tigers, kirins and others. These images were interwoven in dancheong ornamentation. Another act of development of this decorating style was colour shifting. In the times of Goryeo the main place had yellow colour which was used to cover most of the buildings' surfaces (walls and spaces between the beams with dancheong patterns). In the Joseon age yellow was replaced by green. It is worth noting that yellow wasn't rejected totally. It was still used as a detail of patterns and sometimes as a colour of walls.
The history of dancheong did not come to an end with the fall of the Joseon period. In the end of 19th and first half of 20th century Korean culture had to face the westernization (during the time of Korean Empire 1897-1910) and japanization (1910-1945) processes. Especially the second one was dramatic. Japanese government tried to replace Korean language and customs by its own and make Koreans subjects to the emperor of Japan. The written Korean language was banned in education and publications. Moreover, Koreans were forced to change their surnames to Japanese. Many cultural artifacts were stolen and moved to Japan. Gyeongbokgung Palace (경복궁) - the royal estate of Joseon dynasty (famous also because of its dancheongs) was demolished and replaced by Japanese governmental buildings. Japanese terror was strong but it wasn’t strong enough to defeat Korean culture. Many Korean artists were educated in that time. As the whole nation was kept under Japanese surveillance the best place for dancheong teaching (in the undercover way) were Buddhist temples and monasteries. That is why almost all dancheong artists in the post Second World War era were hired from Buddhist clergy.
To sum up this brief history of dancheong I can risk to say that it is an example of living art. The generations of Korean artists have been creating the dancheong embellishments for about 2000 years and its tradition was never disrupted. In the second half of the 20th century this style flourished again and up till now it has had its renaissance. The style still evolves. New generations move it to the different branches of art (digital art, tattoo art, modern applied arts, abstract art - Park Il-sun's [박일선] paintings) and one of good examples of this process are works of the Korean fashion designer Lie Sang Bong (이상봉). Since the turn of 20th and 21st century K-art has become really popular in the world. The dancheong as a part of this phenomenon also has begun to be a source of attraction and inspiration for foreigners.
Functions
The main functions of dancheong:
- Protective – it preserves the wood from wind and moisture. As some pigments are toxic it protects wooden constructions from vermin either.
- Representative – it reflects the rank and dignity of the building
- Religious – the colorful decorations were believed to guard structure from evil. As for the temples and monasteries the dancheong creates the atmosphere conducive to prayer, meditation and other worship services.
- Esthetic – it covers up the crudeness of materials and embellishes all visible surfaces of the structure
Artists
Dancheong artists and artisans are called dancheongjang (단청장, 丹靑匠). Less popular names of this occupation are: hwasa, hwawon, hwagong, gachiljang, dochaejang. Buddhist monks who paint dancheongs are named hwaseung, geumeo and dancheongjang eojang. These last two names are reserved only for mastered monks. It is worth drawing attention to the fact that nowadays some dancheongjangs are Holders of Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea (요무형문화재). In other words people who hold this rank are Living National Treasures of Korea.
Famous dancheongjangs of the 20th and 21st century are:
- venerable Man-Bong - 만봉스님 (Lee Man Bong -이만봉, Lee Chi-ho -이치호, Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- venerable Ilsop (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- venerable Wolju (Won Deok-mun, Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- Jung Sung-gil (Incheon Intangible Cultural Asset No. 14)
- Song In-jeong (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- venerable Hyeogak (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- venerable Kim Ye-woon
- venerable Lee Yong-woon
- Lee In-sup (Lee Chi-ho’s son)
- Hong Chang-won - 홍창원 (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- Hong Jeom-seok (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- Yu Byeong-sun (Intangible Cultural Property No. 48)
- Yang Yong-ho - 양용호
- Kim Joon-Woong - 김준웅
An apprentice becomes a dancheongjang after training under the supervision of master. The training lasts about 8 years (not always) and it consists of pattern design practice and renovating duties.
Types, styles, symbolic meaning
Types
The most common type of dancheong which we can admire in Korea now is Joseon dancheong (조선시대의 단청). This type represents 99% of all dancheongs. Goryeo dancheong (고려시대의 단청) remained only on a few historical buildings from that epoch (they were mentioned in the "history" section of this post). As for Silla dancheong (신라시대의 단청), Baekje dancheong (백제시대의 단청) and Goguryeo dancheong (고구려시대의 단청) there exist some reconstructed buildings which are embellished in recreated paintings from Three Kingdoms of Korea period. The most famous examples of replicas of this kind are Sabi Palace (사비성) and Neungsa Temple (능사) in Baekje Cultural Land (백제문화단지) in the city of Gyuam-myeon, reconstructed Sillian pavilion by the Anapji Pond in Gyeongju National Park (경주국립공원) and renovated Nammun (남문) in Taesong Fortress (대성산성) of the Goguryeo Kingdom. I have to add that I haven't heard anything about decorative types of paitings from the rest of Korean historical states, I mean such types like: Gaya dancheong (가야시대의 단청), Buyeo dancheong (부여시대의 단청) and Balhae dancheong (발해시대의 단청).
Colours
As it was stated in the introduction to this post the dancheong is traditionally based on five colours. It is very simplified definition because in fact there are more of them when we add their shades and mixtures. The five basic colours have their own symbolic meaning which comes from ancient chinese Five Elements Theory (오행, 五行). It is interesting because it can be observed how complicated historical processes had influence on this painting style. As we already know the dancheongs were created in Buddhist, Confucian and aboriginal Korean enviroments, while Five Elements Theory comes from Taoism.
According to the donctrine mentioned above every basic colour represents: cardinal direction, mythical creature, season and element.
Blue symbolizes: east, blue dragon, spring and element of wood.
Red symbolizes: south, vermilion bird (something like phoenix), summer and element of fire.
White symbolizes: west, tiger, fall and element of gold.
Black symbolizes: north, hyeonmu (turtle-snake), winter, element of water.
Yellow symbolizes: center, yellow dragon, periods between the seasons, element of earth.
Patterns
The dancheong consists of following patterns:
- Meoricho (머리초) - flower motif placed only on the beam-ends. Most of the time it is lotus pattern (seldom there are other flowers). Depending on the style of dancheong there could be simple and elaborate meoricho. Very complex designs in fact consist of two or more meorichos in the one beam-end.
- Saeksil (색실) - group of lines or one wide band with pattern (dots on dark background, flowers, geometric shapes) between the end of the beam and meoricho. The meoricho does not touches the edge of the beam, saeksil does.
- Hwi (휘) - traditionally called feather pattern. It looks like waves or interlocking bands. Hwi is always placed between meoricho and the center of the beam.
- Bidanmuni (비단무늬) - interlaced geometric shapes (with sixfold symmetry). Very elegant and elaborate pattern used in spaces between meorichos but it may also appear autonomously. In that case the whole beams are covered by bidanmuni without any meoricho, hwi and saeksil patterns employed. Other name of this pattern is geummun (금문, 錦紋).
- Dandongmuni (단동무늬) - single flower, plant, animal or geometric pattern painted in the middle of the beam (between meorichos).
- Byeoljihwa (별지화) - in fact it is not a pattern but naturalistic painting which is always placed in the center of the beam (between meorichos). In some cases it acts as storytelling picture. It may contain various themes: landscapes, mythical and auspicious animals (dragon, tiger, crane, snake-turtle, etc), images of Buddha and bodhisattvas, scenes from the sutras. In the most of cases flower and plant pictures show Four Gentlemen (Four Noble Ones, 사군자): plum, orchid, bamboo and chrysanthemum which symbolize Confucian gunja (군자, 君子, junzi) or different seasons (respectively: winter, spring, summer and autumn).
- Buricho (부리초) - floral pattern of the rounded ends of the rafter. There are a lot of various buricho designs but the most popular is six petal lotus flower.
- Banjacho (반자초) - pattern painted on ceilings. It consists of squares with various designs inside them. There can be found: circle designs, flowers, hanja characters (for example: 壽 - longevity, 福 - luck), swastika symbols (만자문) and mythical creatures.
Styles
The dancheong styles:
- Gachil Dancheong (가칠단청) - the simplest style and probably the oldest. Its main feature is one colour painted plainly on the beam. It does not have any patterns. It employs green, red, white and yellow. This style serves also as base-coat for more detailed styles.
- Geutgi Dancheong (긋기단청) - "geutgi" means "single stroke". This style is gachil with black and white (most of the time) straight lines drawn along the border of the beam.
- Moro Dancheong (모로단청) / Moru Dancheong (모루단청) - "moro" means "end patterns". It is geutgi with meoricho patterns in the ends of the beams, rafters and pillars.
- Geummoro Dancheong (금모로단청) - this style is moro but with dandongmuni pattern or byeoljihwa painting in the middle of the beam (between meoricho patterns).
- Geum Dancheong (금단청) - "geum" means gold or elegant. It is the most beautiful and elaborate style of all dancheongs. Its meoricho patterns are expanded the most. The whole surface of the wood is covered by complex set of motifs. There are no plain one colour surfaces. This style employs dandongmuni placed in the middle of the beams.
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우리가 정말 알아야할 우리 단청 - 한석성, 박해진 – 서울시 (Seoul) – 2004
Useful links:
Buddhist Art of Korea - Dancheong (불교미술 단청)
Couleurs de Corée
Dancheong -- a discussion of aesthetic principals but no actual definition of the word 'dancheong'
단청 Dancheong a Korean Ornamental Pattern
Dancheong - kolorowe zdobienia budynków
Dancheong (Korean art of painting buildings) – colors coexist to create magnificent splendor
사찰 장식, 그 빛나는 상징의 세계 - 단청 - 불전을 장식하는 화려한 색채와 그림
단청문양
Temple Colours – Dancheong
A Traditional Spiritual Colors of Korea -Dancheong
What’s the purpose of applying Dancheong on Korean traditional architecture?
If you have any questions please feel free to e-mail me:
